Monday, January 22, 2007

Hierarchy in Dalit

One integral aspect of Nepalese society is the existence of Hindu caste system. Hierarchy is the main principle through which caste system operates. Over a period of time casteism developed a rigid hierarchical society with purity and pollution of castes.

The caste based Hindus, follow a hierarchy of status codified by Jayasthiti Malla in 14th century. This 1854 “Old Legal Code of Nepal” lists four hierarchical caste grouping: those wearing the sacred thread, those consuming liquor, those from whom water may not be accepted by higher caste and those whose water is not acceptable and whose touch requires purification (Hofer, 1979). The latter two groupings are the Dalits, or untouchables. In this manufactured caste hierarchy, Brahmins lie at the top and, Sudras, or Dalits lie at the bottom of society. Besides the caste groups, there are about 60 ethnic group in the country (Luitel, 2003). Outlawed in year 1963 itself, without no strong action against it, the practice of untouchability still exists in all part of the country.

Nepalese society is clearly split into touchables and untouchables. The Dalits (untouchables) have been a victim of psychological and physical violence from the upper caste group be it the caste or ethnic group who are supposed to be superior to them. There is also discrimination among these groups who practice untouchability among themselves as superior and inferior group. Unfortunately even within an impoverished group that is emotionally called Dalits or the untouchables, someone is higher and someone is lower. Thus, the practice of untouchability penetrated down to the untouchables. As a result, it went down to the extent of making discrimination between touchable and untouchable castes within the untouchable’s community itself.

An untouchable is more polluting to another higher-ranking Untouchable than, say, a “Non-enslavable Alcohol- Drinkers” is to another higher ranking “Non-enslavable Alcohol- Drinkers” (Hofer, 1979).

This paper attempts to give insight into existing form of hierarchy within the untouchables/Dalits and on what basis this hierarchy has sustained.

2. Defining the Dalits

A ‘Dalit’- formerly called untouchable-is a person outside the four castes and considered below them. In India Harijan is the term used for Dalits which means “Children of God”. Many Dalit consider “Harijan” condescending and prefer the term Dalit translated as “crushed”, “stepped on” or “oppressed”. Untouchables refer to those sections of Indian society that are economically dependant and exploited, victims of many kinds of discrimination, and ritually polluted in permanent way (Deliege, 1999).

The literal meaning of Dalit in Nepali dictionary is ‘the person who is suppressed”. In the context of South Asia, Dalit is a common term used to address culturally, economically and socially marginalized individual or communities. Some others have interpreted the word Dalit as derivative from daldal or swamp from where it is difficult to extricate. However some say that the term ‘Dalit’ should be exclusively used to refer to the lowest hierarchy of the Hindu caste society, i.e., those considered ‘untouchable’.

The proposed Bill on Dalits in Nepal by National Dalit Commission has defined ‘Dalit’ as “those communities who by virtue of atrocities of caste-based discrimination and untouchability, are most backward in social, economic, educational, political and religious fields, and are deprived of human dignity and social justice (Dahal, 2002).

The term is also used to designate communities that in practice continue to be treated as Pani na chalne,choi chhito halnu parne (group or caste from whom water is not accepted, and whose touch requires sprinkling of water by the so-called high caste communities).

The Uppechhit, Utpidit ra Dalit Barga Utthan Bikas Samiti (Ignored, Oppressed and Dalit Group’s Upliftment Development Committee), formed under the Ministry of Local Development, has identified 23 different Dalit communities Lohar, Sunar, Kami, Damai, Kasai, Sarki, Badi, Gaine, Kusule, Kuche, Chyame, Chamar, Dhobi, Paswan (Dushad), Tatma, Batar, Khatbe, Musahar, Santhal Sattar and Halkhor.(Dahal, 2002).

Dalit category includes what one may call artisan or occupational castes-cobbler, tailor, leather worker, washer man, sweeper, laborers, weaver, metal worker, and so on. Engaging in these activities was considered to be polluting to the individual who performed them and this pollution was considered to be ‘contagious’ by the higher caste people.

3. Main Dalit Groups and their Occupation

As per the official statistics, the Dalits constitute 13 per cent of the total population of the country of 23,151,423. Of the Dalit population, 58.11% are of hill origin, 36.17% are of Madhesi origin in tarai and the remaining 5.72 per cent are Newari origin (Jha, 2005).

The National Dalit Strategy Report (2002) prepared for the government of Nepal, enumerates the traditional occupations of Dalit communities. The Kamis caste makes new agricultural tools and household utensils. They also repair them as needed. They are the largest Dalit group according to the 1991 census. They comprise 44 percent of all Dalits and 5.2 percent of the total population of Nepal.

A goldsmith, or Sunar, makes golden or silver ornaments upon request by the clients. The Parkis are basket weavers. The Chunara, a blacksmith group of far-western Nepal, makes utensils from wood. Damai castes work as a tailor and drummers. In Damai group, both men and women are tailors who sew clothes. They are the second largest population, 17 percent of all Dalits.

The Sarki are leatherworkers who make shoes and other product from the body of dead animals. They are the third largest Dalit group, at 12 per cent. The Badis are singers and dancers, with a significant number of women co-opted into prostitution. The Gaines is wonderful musician, who entertain by singing songs.

The Tarai dalits such as Chamar are leather workers. They make and polish shoes as well as dispose of dead animals for clients. The Tatmas are weavers the Doms are basket makers. The Halkhor are sweepers who clean the streets and bathrooms for the government as well as individual households. No other Dalits would accept food or water from them.

Dhobis are washer man by profession. They make a relatively good living compared to other Dalits and, at 21 percent, have one of the highest literacy rates.The Dalits of Kathmandu valley, particularly the Chyame, Pode and Halahulu have a monopoly in cleaning public and private bathrooms, hotels and government offices. The Kasai (Khadgi) are traditionally butchers and Kusle(Kapali) are sweepers. Both of them are also musician providing specified type of music on different type of social and religious occasions.
(Dahal et al, 2002)


3.1 The Hierarchy of Low caste according to Muluki Ain of 1854.

Caste
Caste specific profession(s)
Ethnicity


N-Newar,P-Parbatiya
Castes from whom water may not be accepted but whose touch does not necessitate purification
Kasai
butcher,milk-seller
N
Kusle
death-specialists, musician
N
Hindu Dhobi
washermen
N
Kulu
drum-makers
N
Musalman (Muslim)
bangle-seller
others
Mleccha( Westerners)

others



Castes whose touch necessitates purification

Kami
blacksmith
P
Sarki
leather workers
P
Kadara ( offspring of Kami-Sarki union)

P
Damai
tailor,musicians
P
Gaine
minstrels
P
Badi
musician
P
Pode( Dyahla)
sweepers,guardians,scavenger
N
Cyame ( Cyamkhalah)
sweeper,scavenger
N




Source: - Adapted from Hofer, 1979.

4. Hierarchy within Dalits

Dalits are hierarchically structured with Hill dalit, Newar dalit and Tarai dalit occupying different rungs on the social ladder. The hierarchy within Dalit group is partly based on eating habits and partly on caste occupation. It is however wrong to think that the hierarchy is confined to just these two. Sex is equally governed by this consideration. The top sub-caste of the community do not dine, marry or sometimes even touch the lowest layers.

4.1 Hill Dalits

Among the dalits, the Kami are considered highest in the social rank and never accept food or water from any Dalit groups below them. Kami and Sarki regard other community like Damai untouchable, while there does exist inequality even between Kami and Sarki. Although they intermarry and consider themselves of equal ranking, they never accept water and bhat from one another, whereas they mutually accept roasted and fried food (Hofer, 1979).

There are two levels of Sarki in western Nepal-with caste and without caste, which is called Bhool. This community treats itself equal to Kami (Jha, 2005). According to the Law Code (Muluki Ain) of 1854, Children begotten by Sarki from Kami women, or by Kamis from Sarki women, belong to the Kadara caste (Hofer, 1979). The next higher are the Kadara. Damais take water from their hands, but (Kadara) does not do so from the hands of Damai.

The Kami and the Damai, for example, regard bodily contact with each other as polluting. The same is true of sexual intercourse between the Kami and Damai. On the other hand Damais treat communities like Gaine untouchable. According to the Law Code they do not take food from Gaine and also refuse to take bhat from the off spring of a marriage between a Damai man and Gaine woman. The next higher are the Gaine (minstrel, singers) because they do not accept food from the Badi and because they live on singing, playing music and begging (Hofer, 1979).

The hierarchy of hill dalits is illustrated in figure 4.1.1 as:-

Caste
Occupation
Kami
blacksmith
Sarki
tanner, shoemaker
Kadara(union of Kami and Sarki)
minstrel and metal worker
Damai
tailors and musicians
Gaine
minstrels
Badi
musicians

4.2 Newar Dalits

The state of caste discrimination and untouchability appears to be slightly different from that of hill and terai dalits. The Newar Dalits includes Khadgi(Kasai), Kapali(Kusle) and Dyahla(Pode).Particularly they are settled in Lalitpur , Kathmandu and Bhaktapur also.There are other Newar Dalits :the Carmakar(Kulu)or Drum-Makers, the Vadyakar(Dom) or Musician, the Rajaka(Dhobi,Dhubya) or Washerman and the Chyamkhala(Chyame) who are sweepers and scavengers.

Khadgis(Kasai ) are traditionally butchers. They also play musical instrument called, Naykhin, in funeral procession as well as at different festivals in Kathmandu valley. According the the Law Code, the Khadgi rank highest of the Newar dalis because they will not accept water and rice from any other low castes and do not take bhat form the akusle either, and because all superior castes accept milk from them (Hofer, 1979). Khadgis, rank high is certainly connected to the fact that, to a greater extent than any other low cates, they reproduce the inter-caste service system of the higher castes. They are the only Newar dalits served by the Kapali at death, and they are the only dalits to have priests of a higher rank than themselves. These are the so-called Nay Gubhaju i.e Khadgi Vajracharya (Gellner and Quigley, 1995)

The Kapalis’(Kusle) relatively high rank within the low castes is justified in the Law Code by the fact that they serve as a sweeper in temple and palaces and that they play music in temples(Gellner and Quigley,1995).The Kapali are the death specialists who accept the impure offerings made on the seventh day after a death. They also accept death offerings from Khadgis, thus indicating that they accept the latter’s superiority to them. Within Kapalis also the roles of priest, barber and receiver of death are filled by other Kapalis themselves. The barber and receiver of the death receiver come from a lower Kapali sub-caste called Danya also referred to as Napi. The Dom is another separate sub-caste, said to be the offspring of Kapali men and lower-caste wives; it is they who accept the death offerings from Khadgi.

The Dhobis as by the name indicates are the washer man. They do not accept food from the eight aforesaid castes (see table 3.1) and because they enter certain rooms of the higher castes, i.e., of their clients (Gellner and Quigley, 1995). Carmarkar (Kulu) are leather-workers. According to the Law Code, Kulus do not accept cooked rice or water from Dalits below them, and have not begotten any children from girls belonging to these castes and also because (Kulus) have been undergoing expiation in the customary manner in the event of taking cooked rice or water touched by Damai, Kamai and Sarki, or of being involved in sexual relations with them (Hofer, 1979).

No Newar low caste eat carrion or remove dead cows, as the Sarkis do, and they consider themselves superior to the Sarki for that reason(Gellnar and Quigley, 1995).

We now come to the untouchable castes. According to the Law Code the Pode and Chyame rank the lowest because they accept everyone else polluted food. Chyame are the lower since they are the only one who cleans up faecal matter. The 1854 Law Code ranked the Cyamkhalah(Chyame) lower since its members take food left over by all other caste from, Upadhaya to Pode. In Panautia Cyamkhalah comes once a year from Bhaktapur to dispose of inauspicious offerings made by local Dyahla (Gellnar and Quigley 1995). The caste of Pode is higher than that of Chyame since its member take food left over by the other castes, but not by the Chyame caste. The lowest of the Newar Dalits are Harhures(baseless). Their ancestry is unknown and they live on begging. They are often seen begging on occasions like Gathemangal.

The hierarchy of newar dalits is illustrated in figure 4.2.1 as

Caste
Occupation
Kasai (Khadgis)
butcher
Kusle ( Kapali)
musician
Newar Dhobi
washerman
Kulu
tanner
Pode (Dyahla)
skinner and fisherman
Chyame ( Cyamkhalah)
scavenger
4.3 Tarai Dalits

The Tarai Dalits are considered socially, economically and politically backward than the above two- Hill Dalits and Newar Dalits.The Tarai Dalits, as any other caste-origin Hindu groups, have some distinct cultural features like hierarchical structure, hereditary basis of membership, endogamy and purity and pollution. The Dalits of the Tarai are treated as ‘Dalits of the Dalits’ due to their backwardness as compared to the hill Dalits of the country (Jha, 2005).

Chamar,Dusadh,Khatwe,Tatma,Musahar,Halkhor,Dhobi,Doms are the major Dalits group in the Tarai who are treated as untouchables.

Like the other groups, even today they follow a strict hierarchical division with them, with Tatma (Tanti or weaver) as the highest group and Halkhor (sweeper) as the lowest group. No other Dalit will accept food or water from the Halkhor. For instance-Musahar who has been living by catching rats does not accept cooked food or water from Chamar and vice-versa.

Intercaste marriage is considered a taboo i.e., a Musahar cannot marry a Chamar and vice-versa. Among the Terai Dalits, the Halkhor and the Doms are worst hit by caste-based discrimination and discrimination within themselves. If the Tatma accidentally has a physical contact with a Dom, the former purifies himself/herself by sprinkling water. Moreover the Dooms are not even allowed to use the tube well belonging to the Tatmas (Jha, 2005).

The hierarchy of tarai dalits is illustrated in figure 4.3.1 as

Caste
Occupation
Tatma
weaver
Chamar
leather worker
Musahar
earth-worker
Dhobi
washerman
Dom
sweeper
Halkhor
sweeper


Though the entire three Dalits group contain internal hierarchical structure within them, among them also the Terai Dalits are considered socially, economically and politically backward than the other two.The Doms are treated by all the Dalit castes of Tarai village in the same way as they are treated by the non-dalits .

Certain Dalits have emulated the customs and traditions of the upper caste people under the process known as “Sanskritization”. The National Report says, “Over the last 15-20 years, three groups namely Sudi, Kalwar and Teli have socially upgraded their status from the untouchables to the water acceptable community within the Tarai origin Hindu caste groups” (Jha, 2005).


5. Conclusion

There is no particular and clear description about the origin of Dalits. The religion describes it as created by God whereas the literature shows it is based on occupation. The Dalits have been a victim of psychological and physical violence from the upper caste be it the caste group or ethnic groups who are supposed to be superior to them.

However they are not discriminated by the so-called higher caste people only, in Hindu system, but also by people within the same caste. What’s more striking is that there is also discrimination among these groups who practice untouchability among themselves as superior or inferior group. There exists hierarchy of upper and lower caste. The top echelons of the community do not dine, marry, or even sometimes touch the lowest sub-caste.

No doubt there has been launched a campaign at the organizational level by oppressed caste to oppose discrimination. Still open entry into the house and marital relation are far from being materialized. The prevailing hierarchical structure and the practice of untouchability within Dalits is dividing them and disturbing the battle plans of getting liberated from the age old discrimination of caste system. If the Hindus expect equal treatment from the West, it is essential that they should give same treatment to their Dalit community. By the same token, if the Dalits want equal treatment from the non-Dalit Hindus, they should also avoid discrimination among themselves.

No comments: